Group 3 Final Project

The Hamburger: An American Identity

=Introduction= The hamburger has been tied to American food identity since McDonald’s golden arches first appeared on an international stage. This all beef patty has captured the heart of millions, continually being among the top favorite food of many Americans. Its allure lies in its simplicity and differentiation, giving the eater comfort in its familiarity and excitement in its different condiments. The hamburger is one of few foods that serve to unify an ethnically divided country; however it could serve to ruin it as well. This unifying characteristic can be seen in its origins, connection to the condiment, and fast food. The far reaching negative impacts can be seen through the universal health effects now being studied and the environmental impacts of such a large meat processing industry.

=Origins= Thought of by many as the quintessential American food, the hamburger owes its origins to a popular way of eating steak in Germany. The Hamburg Steak consists of minced or ground beef and is usually served with onions and smothered in gravy. Except for the style of meat and its patty shape, the Hamburg Steak bears little resemblance to the American marvel that dominates many fast food restaurants and diners. With endless variations and extreme concoctions it is no wonder that the hamburger has come to be a worldwide icon of America. After all it embodies diversity and innovation, two things that America prides itself on. The Hamburg steak was a popular choice for trans-Atlantic voyages where the salted beef steak offered good shelf life and little need for preparation. The simplicity of this steak is shown in a 19th century cookbook: Pound a slice of round steak enough to break the fibre. Fry two or three onions, minced fine, in butter until slightly browned. Spread the onions over the meat, fold the ends of the meat together, and pound again, to keep the onions in the middle. Broil two or three minutes. Spread with butter, salt, and pepper.1

The emergence of the hamburger sandwich however is a matter of debate. Some trace the hamburger's lineage to Charlie Nagreen of Seymour, Wisconsin, who in 1885, at the age of 15, sold hamburgers out of his ox-drawn food stand at the Outagamie County Fair. He went to the Outagamie County Fair to sell meat balls, however business was not going well and he quickly realized that it was because meatballs were too difficult to eat while walking around. Thus, he flattened the meatballs, placed them between two slices of bread and called his new creation a hamburger, despite the fact that meatballs, not Hamburg-style steak, were the genesis of his sandwich. This story, however, was codified in 20072 when the Wisconsin state legislature declared Seymour, Wisconsin as the birthplace of the hamburger.

The first account of serving a hamburger on a bun originates in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Michael Wallis, travel writer and reporter for “Oklahoma Today,” a local magazine, did an extensive search in 1995 for the true origins of the hamburger and determined that Oscar Weber Bilby was the creator of the hamburger as we know it. Although his family concedes that hamburgers on bread may have existed earlier, Wallis’s 1995 article, Welcome to Hamburger Heaven depicts Bilby as the originator of the hamburger on a bun. Wallis interviews members of Bilby's family who bolster this claim, including his grandson Harold who states: “There's not even the trace of a doubt in my mind... My grandpa invented the hamburger on a bun right here in what became Oklahoma, and if anybody wants to say different, then let them prove otherwise."3

It became such a point of pride and honor to declare the true birthplace of the hamburger that Gov. Bill Keating of Oklahoma in 1995 declared:

"Whereas, scurrilous rumors have credited Athens, Texas, as the birthplace of the hamburger, claiming for that region south of the Red River commonly known as Baja Oklahoma a fame and renown which are hardly its due; and Whereas, the Legislature of Baja Oklahoma has gone so far as to declare April 3, 1995, to be Athens Day at the State Capitol, largely on the strength of this bogus claim... and Whereas, although someone in Athens, in the 1860's, may have place cooked ground beef between two slices of bread, this minor accomplishment can in no way be regarded comes on a bun accompanied by such delight as pickles, onions, lettuce, tomato, cheese and, in some cases, special sauce; and Whereas, the first true hamburger on a bun, as meticulous research shows, was created and consumed in Tulsa in 1891 and was only copied for resale at the St. Louis World's Fair a full 13 years after that momentous and history-making occasion: Now Therefore, I, Frank Keating, Governor of the State of Oklahoma, do hereby proclaim April 12, 1995, as The Real Birthplace of the Hamburger in Tulsa Day."4

The popularity of the hamburger sandwich erupted in the years following World War II with the invention of the drive-in. Car-hops would bring trays of food out to the cars that could hang on the car window, providing convenience in car eating. Hamburger sandwiches were common fare because they were cheap, easy and quick to prepare, and they were portable. This last point made them highly popular with teens and young adults linked to the budding car culture of the post-war era. Although its invention was strictly American, the immigrant heritage of the hamburger serves to connect it to the immigrant culture of America, uniting them through it. As hamburgers rose in popularity, so did their counterpart: the condiment, creating a budding sector in the food industry.

=Condiments= A condiment is defined as something that is used to enhance flavor. Its use on meat was customary long before hamburgers became popular. Condiments can range from the classic onions and Heinz ketchup, to mayonnaise, a slice of cheese, truffles, bananas, Foie gras, and gold flakes. Some burgers, such as the Big-Mac, even use blood preservatives, such as EDTA, in their special sauce. Without condiments, burgers would simply be ground meat on buns. While the meat is important and critical to the identity of a hamburger, the patty also serves as a vessel to move condiments to the mouth, melding the different tastes into a distinctive eating experience. Condiments are one of the factors that differentiate a burger from a plain and boring old sandwich- such as a bologna on rye. The relationship between hamburgers and condiments is unique. Burgers can be seen with toppings that would be outrageous when placed on other food items. One would not think twice about seeing a hamburger with a pickle and lettuce on it, but a steak with the same toppings would receive some weird looks.

Condiments were used with meats, such as the Hamburg steak, long before hamburgers were invented. They predate hamburgers by many hundreds, if not thousands of years. Therefore, it was common sense to enhance the flavor of the hamburger by adding condiments. They got their start as a way to spice up, improve the taste, or cover up the age of the very first foods ever consumed. Throughout the evolution of humanity, condiments have become a mainstay of eating meat. Gravy, onions, and Roman Garum - a fish sauce very similar to today’s Caesar salad dressing – were common early condiments. Pickling is a very old, viable way to keep food fresh for long periods of time. Pickles themselves date back to 2030 BC in India, and were used as a common condiment by Queen Elizabeth in England. They came over to America with early colonists and have been common every since.5 Ketchup got its start from an anchovy paste made in ancient China. Tomatoes were added in the 1700’s in New England.6 By the 18th century there were many different sauces called ketchup, however tomato ketchup became popular and mainstream in the late 1800s, as the Heinz Company grew in size. Mustard results from the pulverizing of mustard seeds. It was hardly used in Greece and Rome, however by the 13th century it was being sold on the streets of Paris. The most notable mustard companies in England were Keenan and Sons and Jeremiah Colman. Colman’s mustard is still popular to this day.7 People became used to the idea of adding a sauce, or vegetable topping to meat. Therefore, when the hamburger evolved as a sandwich, it was natural to put condiments on it. The most ubiquitous of these is cheese, which in and of itself has created a sub category of hamburger.8

The story of the origin of the cheeseburger is very similar to that of the hamburger itself.9 There are several people who claim to have invented the cheeseburger, but the most widely accepted version is that written by Robin Garr, from the Louisville Restaurant Review.8 According to Garr, the cheeseburger got its start by accident in 1934, when Charles Kaelin, of Louisville, was experimenting with toppings, and happened on to cheese; “it occurred to him that if he put a slice of cheese on top of the hamburger patty just before it was done, the cheese would melt down into the patty and add a new tang to the hamburger.” Since then, people have been using cheese to add to the tang of the burger. The creation of the cheeseburger is also attributed to Lionel C Sternberger, in Los Angeles in 1924/1926, and Louis Ballast in Denver, Colorado in 1935. The most likely answer to the cheeseburger dilemma is that there is no real first cheeseburger. Cheeseburgers seem to be an example of convergent evolution, where burger makers in different places came upon the idea of cheese independently and the burgers developed from there. The first fast food burgers were topped with some of the most basic condiments, similar to those used on the earliest Hamburg steak. White Castle sliders had onions, and a small pickle. Pickles were simple and could also be kept for long periods of time and therefore worked well in the fast food setting. Beyond onions, pickles, and cheese, most hamburgers generally include lettuce, whose origin as a condiment is similar to that of cheese, tomatoes and ketchup. Each condiment adds to the flavor of the burger. Onions add spice, pickles add a little sour taste, cheese provides both texture and taste, lettuce adds a light crunch to the burger, the tomato offers a cooling moistness, and Ketchup offers a tangy taste. Although these are the most common condiments, they are not used everywhere. For instance, Texans do not use ketchup; burgers with ketchup are called Yankee or Sissy Burgers. In Texas, it is more common to make burgers with mustard. There are several burger chains in LA that do not serve ketchup at all.

One of the most interesting facts about hamburgers is that they are not just ground meat patties on a bun. There are thousands of different types of hamburgers, and even more types of toppings. There is no one condiment that is present in every burger. Not every burger has a pickle, nor an onion, or even ketchup. One of the most beautiful, and delicious, aspects of condiments on a burger are that there are no limitations. A burger can have anything, and everything, on it. How about one with eggs, sausage and bacon, topped with maple syrup? All this boils down to the fact, that although burgers are by far the most popular fast food, thanks to the diversity of condiments, no burgers need to be exactly alike.

=Fast Food= Fast food and hamburgers have been deeply connected since the origin of the fast food industry. In 1920 Walt Anderson opened his hamburger stand in Wichita, Kansas. He served hamburgers to factory workers and therefore helped define hamburgers as a working class food. Billy Ingram invested in Anderson’s business, realizing that there could be large gains in hamburgers. The Jungle, by Upton Sinclair, had changed Americans view of the burger. They distrusted it and were suspicious of what was in it. Ingram first combated this image by naming the business White Castle. The word white was used to give the image of purity while the word castle was used to represent strength and stability. Ingram standardized the entire business. All the restaurants looked the same, all workers were eighteen to twenty-four years of age and all had a high school education.8 Ingram went so far as to create his own factories to create uniform paper aprons and hats. Consistency meant that people could trust White Castle’s name wherever they went.9 A White Castle pamphlet stated:

"When you sit in a White Castle, remember that you are one of several thousands; you are sitting on the same kind of stool; you are being served on the same kind of counter; the coffee you drink is made in accordance with a certain formula; the hamburger you eat is prepared exactly the same way over a gas flame of the same intensity; the cups you drink from are identical with thousands of cups that thousands of other people are using at the same moment; the same standard of cleanliness protects your food…"10

This consistency was possible due to Taylorism. Introduced in the early 1900’s by Frederick Winslow Taylor, Taylorism is a “production efficiency methodology that breaks every action, job, or task into small and simple segments which can be easily analyzed and taught.” This minimized the skill requirement for the job and the amount of time needed to learn the job. Taylor defined this as a form of scientific management, and it gave rise to the assembly line which became widely used in factory systems across the globe.11

By minimizing the task of each worker and teaching each worker these positions, the level of differentiation between workers in different locations dramatically drops, keeping White Castle consistent. Ingram also used science to prove the healthiness of the burger. Supposedly, a student ate only White Castle burgers for thirteen weeks. Ingram stated:

"We arranged for a medical student to live 13 weeks on nothing but White Castle burgers and water. The student maintained good health throughout the three month period, and was eating 20-24 hamburgers a day during the last few weeks. A food scientist signed a report that a normal healthy child could eat nothing but our hamburger and water and fully develop all its physical and mental faculties."12

Ingram focused his advertisements to groups that were divided by their original ethnic traditions. He sought to find the cracks in American food culture where the hamburger could fit into. He also maintained Anderson’s original customer base, selling the burgers at 5 cents each with the slogan “buy em’ by the sack!”13 However, the working class was not the only class that enjoyed hamburgers. Through his avid promotion, Ingram was able to take the burger across socio-economic and ethnic lines. In 1925 White Castle spread outside of Kansas with a location in St. Louis, and in 1930 it opened its first location on the east coast, in New York City.14

Fast food spread because White Castle was so popular and the system that Ingram created was extremely easy to rip off.15 Burger chains popped up everywhere. Most notable were Wimpy’s, a chain inspired by Elzie Segar’s 1931 cartoon, Big Boy, the first double decker burger, and the all famous McDonald’s.16 Maurice and Richard McDonald started a burger bar in San Bernardino, California in 1940. Little did they know it would turn into the giant it is today. Richard, Dick, McDonald is quoted as saying “…if anybody had told me that, ‘Dick, in 1984, McDonald’s will have sold 50 billion hamburgers,’ I would have said, ‘Man, you’ve been in the California sun too long. You better get under a tree somewhere because you’re in bad shape.”17 They did not just focus on burgers, but also barbeque. They highly systemized the White Castle system and included car hops to appeal to drivers. The brothers had extremely good business; however they knew that the fast food process could be improved upon. In 1948 they closed down their restaurants, fired their car hops and got rid of the barbeque. They reopened with seven items on their menu: hamburgers, cheeseburgers, milk, coffee, soda, potato chips, and pie. They only used paper and plastic plates and silverware. The brothers hired machinist Ed Toman to redesign the machinery they used in order to make the fast food system a continuous process. Toman made then a lazy susan for the hamburger buns, a condiment pump, a bigger spatula, a heat bar, and a six foot grill to cook on. At first no one came to the redesigned restaurant, however once they became acquainted with the new system they came in droves.18

Roy Kroc came across the business and realized what a money maker it could be. He started to run it as a franchise, and in 1961 bought the business from the brothers. The Franchisee’s were required to follow many guidelines in order to keep all McDonald’s consistent, however they were allowed to advertise as they pleased and were allowed to create their own dishes. This led to such famous McDonald’s meals as the fillet o’fish.19 McDonald’s capitalized on the idea of populuxe, populism combined with luxury; symbols that represented the achievement of a life of convenience and prosperity.20 This, along with America’s obsession with mechanism and standardization post World War II, led McDonald’s to become extremely popular and spread rapidly. Today it is known as a symbol of America and capitalism around the world.

Although many chains have attempted to steal the throne of McDonalds, only two have stood out as true competitors, Burger King and Wendy’s. Burger King arose as one of McDonald’s biggest rivals because it was one of the few chains that had differences from McDonald’s. Burger King automated the system that McDonald’s had created and set up patios outside their restaurants to give their customers a backyard barbeque feel as they ate. In 1957 they realized that people would pay more money for a bigger burger and the Whopper was created. The Big Mac did not come out until 1968. Burger King even beat out McDonald’s to become the “official fast food” of the army and the air force in 1984.21 By 1967 Burger King was creating 100 new restaurants a year.22 Dave Thomas created Wendy’s for the sole purpose of rivaling McDonald’s. Thomas had previously worked with KFC and applied all of his knowledge from that experience to form Wendy’s. Wendy’s represented a return to old fashioned values before fast food. The food was more expensive, a burger sold for fifty five cents at Wendy’s while it sold at eighteen cents at McDonald’s, however Thomas knew that people would pay for higher quality food. Wendy’s burgers were square because the corners sticking out of the buns convey size, “homey nonconformity,” and plenty. Wendy’s was the first fast food chain to diversify their menu, adding salads, potatoes and more, and they also invented the drive through to bring back the car hop feel without denigrating the continuous fast food process. Wendy’s has since come into a dead tie with Burger King for America’s second favorite burger.23 Fast food has become widely popular in modern society, however its super sized menu and cheap food have led to many negative health effects that are currently plaguing the United States.

=Health and Environmental Effects= The health effects of the burger can be devastating to both adults and children because of its fat content, calories, and how often the burger is consumed. Socioeconomic background also plays a key role in determining what one eats and how often they consume unhealthy foods, therefore, poverty is linked to the obesity epidemic in the United States. The foods that one chooses to buy are directly related to income. Because items on the “McDonald’s Dollar Menu” are generally cheaper than the “healthier options”, people in poverty cannot afford many healthy foods.24According to Seth S. Martin, “Deprived living conditions, malnutrition, and poor access to health care can advance the progression from poverty to disease. The resultant disease can lead to more poverty via the association of disease with limited employability, high health care expenses, and losses of skills and ability”. Of these different diseases, obesity is the most chronic and devastating.25

One of the most recognized icons in America is Ronald McDonald. Some argue that it may be fair to blame the clown for the rise of obesity in children. According to Larry D. Woodard in his article, Ronald McDonald Fallout: What Role Does Advertising Have in Childhood Obesity, a child sees an average of 40,000 commercials a year.26 As childhood obesity becomes more of a recurrent issue in America, the role of marketers must change to show children the healthy options to McDonald’s and fast food, this way playing the same role their parents would.

Research has also linked junk food to wheezing and asthma in young children. According to a study in which 1,321 children were involved, the children who ate one burger per week were 75 percent more likely to have asthma and 100 percent more likely to have wheezing problems than the children who ate a healthier diet.27 Every day in America, nearly one-third of children ages four to nineteen are eating fast food as their meals. Therefore, this automatically puts them at risk for wheezing, asthma, obesity, and adding six extra pounds on per year. 28 This also means that children will continue to eat fast food due to the increasing demand for fast food chain restaurants in the United States, and around the globe. The latest research shows that a meat-based diet poses multiple threats to the environment. In his essay, Jim Motavalli, explores the impacts of fast food on the environment. According to Motavalli,

"More than a third of all raw materials and fossil fuels consumed in the U.S. are used in animal production. Beef production alone uses more water than is consumed in growing the nation’s entire fruit and vegetable crop. Producing a single hamburger patty uses enough fuel to drive 20 miles and causes the loss of five times its weight in topsoil. In his book The Food Revolution, author John Robbins estimates that “you’d save more water by not eating a pound of California beef than you would by not showering for an entire year.” Because of deforestation to create grazing land, each vegetarian saves an acre of trees per year."29

These staggering statistics are only growing with the rise of the fast food industry. If the United States plans to face the global warming problem in the near future, which it will eventually be forced to, there will be severe impacts on the fast food and meat industry. If not, it will be face serious consequences.

=Globalization and the Burger Today= Globalization of the hamburger and Americanization are deeply intertwined. Globalization is defined by Merriam Webster as the act or process of globalizing, which in turn means to make world-wide. The hamburger globalized through the process of Americanization, which is defined by Webster as causing to acquire or conform to American characteristics. In the post World War II era America sought to enforce its influence throughout the world, and the hamburger was a prime artifact to do so with. Hamburgers had reached every level of American society and were considered an American food. Therefore, they would be seen as distinctly American abroad. The most receptive to this idea was Japan. Den Fujita, a Japanese McDonald’s franchise owner, even stated:

"The reason Japanese people are so short and have yellow skins is because they have eaten nothing but fish and rice for 2 thousand years. If we eat McDonald’s hamburgers and potatoes for a thousand years we will become taller, our skin will become white, and our hair blond."30

At the same time, the fast food industry had reached a stale mate. There was nowhere else to expand within America, and so they spread to the international stage. The first restaurant to cross the ocean was Wimpy’s, who established a restaurant in England in 1931.31 In 1967, McDonald’s opened their first restaurant in Canada and in 1978 they opened a restaurant in Japan. McDonald’s hit Europe in 1980 with the opening of a restaurant in Munich Germany, and in 1992 they had record breaking sales when they opened up in Warsaw, Poland. Currently, McDonald’s has restaurants in 118 different countries.32 Burger King followed suit with a restaurant in Madrid in 1975, and a restaurant in the United Kingdom in 1977.33 Wendy’s was late in the game and did not start globalizing until 1988.34 Although there are many restaurants that have gone global, McDonald’s is by far the most widespread, accounting for the recognition of McDonald’s as a central part of the American image. However, due to corporate greed, this is not always a positive representation, and is affecting the American image abroad. This negative reflection on the United States impacts both our government and the average American citizen. The hamburger has come a long way since its simple roots in the Hamburg steak. Today many of the hamburgers one finds in average restaurants are foreign to the original Hamburg Steak eater and blasphemous to a hamburger sandwich purist. American chain restaurants such as Applebee's and Outback, as well as fast food franchises, such as Burger King and McDonald's, constantly push the envelope in the way they serve the hamburger. The Applebee's Quesadilla Burger fuses the southwestern style of cuisine, using tortillas in lieu of a bun and peppers, with a thick hamburger patty. It is tied together with bacon, onion, lettuce and tomatoes. The quesadilla burger also sports a Mexi-Ranch sauce that is both creamy and spicy35. Then there is the American icon: the Big Mac. It is hard to forget the jingle: two all beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onion on a sesame seed bun36. It is the pinnacle of burger engineering.

While these works of art in burger may have more notoriety and perhaps infamy they pale in comparison to the burger constructs homegrown on the grills and barbeques of American homes. For example the espresso rubbed barbeque burger was created by dusting beef patties with espresso prior to grilling them. Even the patty itself has evolved over time: the introduction of meatless tofu or veggie burgers has offered the same look, and some argue taste, as traditional hamburgers. Furthermore, the use of other meats such as turkey, ostrich and bison, have helped consumers to enjoy many of the aspects of hamburger sandwiches without the fat of beef.

=Conclusion= Throughout its journey, the hamburger has drastically changed. This sandwich has gone from being distrusted to beloved, simple to eccentric and consistent to highly diversified. David J. Steinberg even calls the hamburger “vital” in his letter to The Washington Post in 1973. However, the hamburger’s journey is coming full circle. Today, due to the increased emphasis on health, obesity, and the environment, hamburgers are falling off their pedestal and once again being seen with disdain. Although their time in the limelight is coming to an end, hamburgers will forever hold their place in America’s history, for not only did they carry its name to all aspects of the globe, but they created an American food identity that was previously absent.

=Notes= 1 Fannie Farmer. Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Little, Brown and Company, Boston. 1896. PP.178

2 Wisconsin State Legislature 2007-2008 session, Assembly Joint Resolution 12, LRB−1572/1, http://legis.wisconsin.gov/2007/data/AJR-12.pdf

3 Michael Wallis. Welcome To Hamburger Heaven. Oklahoma Today, May 1995

4 Weber's Superior Root Beer. http://webersrootbeer.net/

5 Dana Terebelski and Nancy Ralph. Pickle History Timeline. http://www.nyfoodmuseum.org/_ptime.htm. 2003

6 Lynn Kerrigan. All About Ketchup (Catsup). http://www.globalgourmet.com/food/sleuth/0799/#axzz17A0n2tyu. 1998-2001 7 Michele A. Jordan. Mustard: The History of a Condiment. http://www.globalgourmet.com/food/egg/egg0796/histcond.html#axzz177qaPGQh. 1996 8 Robin Garr's Louisville Restaurant Reviews 9 Hamburger Recipes - The Definitive Hamburger Recipe Source. Web. 04 Dec. 2010. .

10Tolbert's Texas, The Henderson County Hamburger, by F. X. Tolbert, Doubleday & Co., Garden City, New York, 1983.

11 Steve Harvey. "Only In LA" LA Times [Los Angeles] March 27th 1991

12David Hogan, Selling 'em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 25-34. 13 David Hogan, Selling 'em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 44.

14 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 35.

15 Business Dictionary, s.v. “Taylorism,” http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Taylorism.html

16 David Hogan, Selling 'em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 33.

17 David Hogan, Selling 'em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 1-3.

18 David Hogan, Selling 'em by the Sack: White Castle and the Creation of American Food (New York: NYU Press, 1997), 39-40.

19 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 43.

20 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 42 and 47.

21 Mark Potts, Just Call Him Fast Foods Father, Washington Post, November 23, 1984.

22 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 51-57.

23 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 70-71

24 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 87.

25 Burger King, Military Join in Whopper Deal, Washington Post, May 25, 1984.

26Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 97-100.

27 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 120-122.

28 Martin, Seth S. “FROM POVERTY TO OBESITY: EXPLORATION OF THE FOOD CHOICE CONSTRAINT MODEL AND THE IMPACT OF AN ENERGY-DENSE FOOD TAX.” American Economist 1 October  2005. http://www.allbusiness.com/accounting/1086324-1.html. Online.

29 Martin. . “FROM POVERTY TO OBESITY: EXPLORATION OF THE FOOD CHOICE CONSTRAINT MODEL AND THE IMPACT OF AN ENERGY-DENSE FOOD TAX.” American Economist 1 October  2005. http://www.allbusiness.com/accounting/1086324-1.html. Online.

30 Woodard, Larry D. “Ronald McDonald Fallout: The Role Advertising Plays in Childhood Obesity.” ABC News 7 April 2010. http://abcnews.go.com/Business/ronald-mcdonald-fallout-role-advertising-childhood- obesity/story?id=10298693. Online.

31 Author Unknown. “Asthma in Children Linked to Hamburger Consumption.” Steady Health 16 November 2005. http://www.steadyhealth.com/Asthma_in_children_linked_to_hamburger_consumption_t58203.html 32 Holguin, Jaime. “Fast Food Linked to Child Obesity.” CBS News 5 January 2003. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/05/health/main591325.shtml 33 Motavalli, Jim. “The Case Against Meat.” E Magazine. http://www.emagazine.com/view/?142. Online. 34 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 119. 35 Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (Icons of America) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 42. 36 McDonald’s History-About McDonald’s. http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_company/mcd_history.html. 2010 37 Burger King. http://www.caterersearch.com/Companies/33894/burger-king.html. June 2006. 38 The Wendy’s Story. http://www.wendys.com/about_us/story.jsp 39 Applebee's Quesadilla Burger. http://recipecircus.com/recipes/nanamitchem/Mexican/Applebee39s_Quesadillas_Burgers.html 40 McMenu: Do-It-Yourself McDonald's Restaurant Recipes. http://www.epicconstructions.com/mirror/mcd/. pp. 11