Group 1 Final Project

Popcorn: An End to the Quest for American Food

Thesis
Because the United States is a nation of immigrants, defining American food has always been an esoteric task. The vast majority of foods eaten in the United States today are in some way originated from an immigrant population, and very few are eaten nationally without the influence of regional divisions. However, popcorn can claim not only native origins, but also a firmly seated place in Americana. Popcorn is essentially American food because of its Native American origins, connection to American technology and innovation, patriotic rise to popularity during World War II, and representation of contemporary American food values.

Science and Origins
Before examining the origins of popcorn, it’s important to understand the science behind it. Popcorn is a member of the grass family and is one of the four most common types of corn, the only type that pops because it has just the right thickness in its hull to allow the moisture inside to cause it to burst open. For centuries, people have been popping corn. Native Americans believed that a popcorn kernel contained a spirit inside of it, that when heated became angry and exploded out of the kernel in a puff of steam. A more scientific explanation for this popping phenomenon is that popcorn pops because each kernel has a tiny drop of water inside of it surrounded by a circle of starch, all trapped within the kernel’s hard outer hull. When the kernel is heated, the water inside expands until it turns to steam, increasing the amount of pressure inside the hull until it finally bursts open. The starch that was once inside the hull spills outward and immediately cools forming the interesting and obscure popcorn shape.

As an indigenous crop to the Americas, popcorn has American origins. It has grown originally in Mexico; however, wherever explorers like Columbus and Cortez arrived, variations of popcorn made from rice or grains were already there to meet them and were commonly eaten by the natives. The oldest ears of popcorn found were discovered in a Bat Cave in New Mexico in 1948 and 1950 and the ears are found to be around 4,000 years old. Not only did the natives of these countries eat popcorn, but it was significant for wedding ceremonies and other celebratory purposes as well. Aztec Indian girls would wear thick garlands of popcorn on their heads as ceremonial headdresses. They also put these garlands around statues of their gods such as their god of rain and fertility. Early written accounts to England from the New World by Ben Franklin and John Winthrop referenced native Americans making popcorn and packing it as a lightweight food for travel as well as offering it to the settlers.

Innovation and Technology
Popcorn’s history in America is inseparable from American invention and technology, making it a product of American ingenuity. Many of these popcorn innovations have been for the purpose of increasing ease and speed of preparation, an American quest reflected in virtually every aspect of technological improvement. These innovations were also driven by an economic desire to meet the American consumer where they are and broaden the marketability of the snack. One of the earliest examples of this connection is with Charles D. Cretor, who invented a machine for street vending popcorn in 1885. The machine not only popped popcorn and kept it warm but essentially marketed the popcorn itself, as its glass box design displayed the popping kernels visibly and the turning motion combined with open top vents wafted the buttery smell to customers across the street. Street vending popcorn became extremely popular in the 18th and 19th centuries as Cretor’s machine spread throughout urban areas. While previously only popped at home, popcorn was introduced to a broader audience through street vending where it was welcomed as an inexpensive, salty, and familiar snack. New immigrants to America were especially eager to buy Cretor’s machines, as selling popcorn in the street was already established as a successful market and the relatively inexpensive stands could be run as a business without training. These popcorn stands, the father of modern day concession, provided immigrants with an opportunity for independent entrepreneurship while they participated in a central part of American food culture.

Another important step in the development of American popcorn, Cracker Jack is a very recognizable household brand name with an interesting story behind it, as well as a great representation of the variety of popcorn in the market. In 1893, Fred and Luis Ruckheim developed a popcorn, peanuts, and molasses mixture for the Chicago World’s Fair, and after this development, a mixture in which the ingredients wouldn’t all stick together was also developed by creating a molasses which was crispy and dry. The salesman who was tasting the new concoction declared it “Crackerjack," slang for “awesome” and the name stuck, keeping the widely enjoyed brand of popcorn treat “Crackerjack” what it is today. Shortly after this mixture was created, a jingle was produced, and an added incentive of a prize inside the box added to Cracker Jack’s American appeal. It truly can be an example of American identity because it was modified to be sweeter to appeal to American tastes and more entertaining when the jingle is introduced as well as a prize to top the whole popcorn experience off.

Jiffy Pop further transformed the way Americans consumed popcorn and continued to broaden its influence as the quintessential American snack. Developed in 1958 by Fred Mennen, Jiffy Pop made preparing popcorn easier, faster, and cleaner than ever. The popcorn kernels came packaged in an aluminum pan covered in foil, which was placed directly on the stove. When the kernels began to pop, the foil covering dramatically expanded into a balloon-shaped bubble, which the consumer then popped. Best of all, the entire packaging was disposable. Though introduced twenty years earlier as a product of the 1950s convenience food revolution, Jiffy Pop did not find great success until the 1970s, when it was marketed in television advertisements featuring Harry Blackstone, Jr., a magician, which emphasized one of Jiffy Pop’s greatest strengths: its entertainment value. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Jiffy Pop was a staple in many American households for TV dinners and camping trips, through its appeal to the housewife as mess-and-labor-free and its ability to charm children by its dramatic expanding balloon.

Even today, the name Orville Redenbacher remains synonymous with popcorn, and it is through Redenbacher’s innovation that the popcorn itself was revolutionized. While previously examined popcorn technologies focused on improving the way popcorn was popped, Redenbacher, an agriculturalist, sought to develop a better kernel for popping. Through his work with Charlie Bowman, Redenbacher developed a hybrid breed of corn that, when popped, yielded a greater volume of popcorn and a more satisfactory ratio of popped-to-unpopped kernels. The pair originally sold the hybrid popcorn under the brand name “RedBow.” However, they were met with disappointing success and after consulting an advertizing specialist changed the name to Orville Redenbacher’s and chose to market the product as gourmet to account for its higher price. Especially following Redenbacher’s television appearances in which he demonstrated, while wearing his characteristic red bow tie and suspenders, just how much better his corn popped than his competitor’s, Orville Redenbacher’s popcorn became a huge success.

The microwave is of course the final and most revolutionary American innovation in the popping of popcorn. Popcorn became the first intentionally microwaved food in 1946 when the story has it that Dr. Percy Spencer, inventor of the microwave, noticed his experiments with the waves had melted the chocolate bar in his pocket and he tested idea by passing microwaves through popcorn. In 1984 the first microwavable popcorn was marketed to the American public when ConAgra produced Act II popcorn, packaged in bag designed especially for the microwave. Easier than even Jiffy Pop, microwavable popcorn was instantly successful, although it was not without its faults. Perfluorooctanoic acid in the microwavable bags and diacetyl, the chemical created to mirror butter flavor in microwave popcorn, both caused health concerns in lab animals, factory workers who processed the products, and in a few, rare cases consumers. Despite its setbacks, microwavable popcorn continues to be by far the most commonly consumed form of the snack when prepared at home, and the most influential of the technological innovations that changed the way Americans eat popcorn.

Popcorn in American Culture
Popcorn plays a part in American culture not only in the food arena, but it is present in some of our festive traditions as well. In the early twentieth century Americans began to decorate their Christmas trees with homemade ornaments, including popcorn that was dyed bright colors, strung and interlaced with berries and nuts. Popcorn garlands are prevalent on many Christmas trees across America still today. Another festive popcorn Christmas tradition is the tri-flavor popcorn tin that graces many American tables during the holidays. They can be bought at most major department stores and are often given as holiday gifts. The three flavors that they feature are cheese, caramel and butter, and the tins are usually decorated with wintery scenery or other holiday images.

Popcorn’s heyday as an American snack came during the Second World War due to sugar rationing, indicating that its rise to prominence in American society was for patriotic reasons. During WWII, sugar was sent overseas for U.S. troops, resulting in its rationing domestically. Due to this shortage of sugar, candy was not a readily available snack in the US, which provided the perfect opportunity to solidify popcorn's standing as an American staple. Americans embraced this snack, eating three times as much popcorn as before the sugar rationing. In addition to the sugar shortages, WWII induced a baking flour shortage, which caused a lot of bread makers to substitute twenty percent ground popcorn for their wheat flour, further stimulating the popcorn industry. Popcorn remained a popular snack choice even through the Great Depression because it was one of the few luxuries the average American family could afford, often sold at five cents a box. While many businesses failed during this time period, the popcorn industry flourished, as street vendors would push around poppers through crowded places such as fairs, parks and expositions. Popcorn became tightly linked to movie theatre entertainment in this era when vendors spotted a business opportunity by parking their carts or poppers by the movie theatres for people to purchase and take into the theater. The owners of these theaters were initially hesitant about the idea of messy and buttery popcorn being consumed in their theatres, yet began to sell popcorn within the theaters upon seeing how much money they would gain out of this venture.

Health Concerns
The simple food has spawned a fierce debate over its health value. The danger it seems, lies not within the corn itself, but in the flavoring agents we spread on it. It is known that people who ingest large amounts of popcorn flavored with diacetyl, or those who work in factories which use it, can develop bronchiolitis obliterans, colloquially referred to as ‘popcorn worker’s lung’. It gradually causes the lungs areoles to inflame and scar, making it difficult to breath. In response to growing concerns, four major popcorn manufacturers announced that they will phase out diacetyl. The sheer size of servings of popcorn in American movie theaters has become rather massive. The ‘Medium’ of Regal Cinemas is 20 cups of popcorn. The ‘Large’ is also 20 cups, but with free refills. The ‘Large’ and ‘Medium’ contain about 1,200 calories without any buttery topping, just the coconut oil used to pop it. When adding the buttery topping the caloric mark jumps up 200-260 calories. This is a conservative estimate. AMC, another cinema chain carries 590 calorie Mediums (with 33 grams of saturated fat) and 1,030 calorie Larges (with 57 grams). The buttery topping here is dispensed by patrons themselves, at 120 calories a tablespoon. In a study performed in Philadelphia, participants were given either a large or a medium popcorn tub while they watched a movie. The popcorn itself varied from fresh to stale and the moviegoers’ popcorn intake and reported enjoyment to the popcorn was recorded afterward. Even when the popcorn was disliked, participants till ate 33.6% more from large containers than from small ones, and when given fresh popcorn they ate 45.3% more. In summary, the massive servings and unhealthy cooking methods cause movie theater popcorn to be a useful argument for the health concerned side of the debate, and as large quantities become cheaper and cheaper, people will accept the ‘bargain’.

But there is hope for popcorn. In ‘Where are your antioxidants hiding?’ we find that popcorn has 4 times more polyphenols than the aver fruits. Polyphenols are cancer-fighting compounds. When air popped it’s a totally whole grain food, it’s the oils and fats we add to it that give it the dangerous side effects. Diverticulitis, a painful colon disease, was originally thought to be caused by nuts and popcorn damaging the intestinal membrane, but a recent study has disproved this. In a correlational study, 47,228 men were examined and then followed. They were of ages 40-75 and were initially free of diverticular disease, over 18 years 801 men developed the disease. The interesting thing is, men who ate nuts at least twice a week were 20% less likely to develop the disease. The men who popcorn reduced risk by 28%. Corn consumption alone had no effect. So it would seem popcorn isn’t as unhealthy after all, as when consumers avoid the salt and oil, it is a low calorie, whole grain snack with plenty of fiber.

Globalization of Popcorn
Popcorn, while for a long time was hugely popular in America, struggled until recently to find a market abroad. In the past decade, however, Germany has emerged as the nation which buys the most popcorn outside the United States. Along with Germany, popcorn has found a market in Sweden, as well as Japan, where it is often adapted with flavors not typically seen in the United States, like banana. Japan has modified it in flavor, kelp tea being a popular variety. Germans typically eat popcorn sweet, not unlike American Cracker Jacks. In Britain they consume it just like Americans do, mainly in movie theaters. In India, popcorn has become an economic stimulus as well as an aspect of food culture with the rise of popcorn wallah. Sue Dickman writes in the piece ‘The Joy of Travel and Popcorn’ about the food’s potential merits as a cultural equalizer, since everyone likes it and even in times of economic hardship most people can afford a bag. The popcorn wallahs themselves are also an interesting point about the economic potential of such a simple product. The capitol involved in starting a popcorn business is very small: some sand, a metal canister for a fire, a sieve, and of course popcorn kernels are all that is required for a person to support themselves. Across these very different regions and cultures, popcorn abroad is still seen as a very American food, and is often packages in bags and boxes that reflect both the Cracker Jack original packaging and the red and white stripes of the American flag. Outside of the United States, popcorn is typically eaten at movie theaters, carnivals, and outdoor events. Though still dominantly eaten in the U.S., popcorn has finally begun to succeed abroad, where it carries American food culture in perhaps a more legitimate way than the fast food chains which beat it there.

Representation of American Food Values
Today, popcorn continues to serve as a food representation of America through its intimate association with consumerism culture and popularity drawn from its compatibility with the modern American values. Popcorn’s modern connection with consumerism since World War II is strong, through its association with movies and events, as well as its heritage of street concession. As popcorn today is one of the easiest and least expensive snacks, it coincides well with American values of the convenience and affordability of food. The microwave has made popcorn the simplest food a person could prepare, and it requires literally no contact with the food before it is ready to eat. Recent marketing campaigns advertise how much more by volume per dollar popcorn gives versus chips, pretzels, and other snacks, revealing that popcorn continues to complement American food values. In terms of taste, it reflects American preferences through its corn base, saltiness, and, when in its traditional flavor, fairly bland and spiceless taste.

As a nationally appreciated snack food, popcorn transcends race, gender, and typically observed regional food differences. Popcorn, in its simplest state, has never been identified with one gender or race, either; however, a popular variation, the popcorn ball, was centrally most popular among white women. Images from segregated movie theaters in the 1950s show African-Americans enjoying the same popcorn eaten by white movie-goers. Because popcorn is so prevalent in American culture yet so inexpensive, the snack also transcends class barriers. The very poorest Americans in the Great Depression consumed popcorn, as did the wealthy. Flavor variations of popcorn, such as caramel and cheese, are not regionally rooted but are eaten across the United States. Popcorn was a staple on the American diet as early as the 18th century, but by the 1930’s was so deeply rooted in American culture that when the New York Times published an article titled “Slump in Popcorn,” readers like J.E. Harris wrote to the editor in passionate defense of the snack, saying,

"You smell the kernels popping briskly when you drive around town at night- and then each rider in the car with you, grown up and children, must have an overflowing five-cent bagful. You carry popcorn bags into motion-picture theaters out there; electric poppers are busily active in every drug store."

Harris, a Midwesterner, associates popcorn with the food of home, but also claims that New Yorkers and New Englanders would say the same. His dramatic reminiscence on the snack demonstrates that, as popcorn had penetrated American culture by this time, it had become more than just a food, but a part of the American identity. As Betty Fussell said,

"Popcorn is a truly indigenous fast finger-food that links all ages, places, races, classes, and kinds in the continuing circus of American life. Popcorn is the great equalizer, which turns itself inside out to attest to our faith that colour is only skin deep and class superfluous."

While Fussell’s language is certainly romantic, popcorn is a rare food which can be considered American from its origins to its nationally consistent appeal across region, gender, and socioeconomic status.