Caste and Class in Post-Independence India

=What is Caste?=
 * The word caste comes from the Portuguese word casta, meaning breed, race, or kind. Among the Indian terms that are sometimes translated as caste are varna, jati, or jat. Varna refers to sections that include various castes. According to IndianChild.com, "many castes are traditionally associated with an occupation, such as high-ranking Brahmans; middle-ranking farmer and artisan groups, such as potters, barbers, and carpenters; and very low-ranking "Untouchable" leatherworkers, butchers, launderers, and latrine cleaners. There is some correlation between ritual rank on the caste hierarchy and economic prosperity. Members of higher-ranking castes tend, on the whole, to be more prosperous than members of lower-ranking castes. Many lower-caste people live in conditions of great poverty and social disadvantage."
 * Caste is defined as a system of social difference in India as well as other areas of the Indian Subcontinent, such as Pakistan and Bangladesh. In reality, social ‘difference’ has been realized as social privilege or restriction for many caste members. Employment, marriage, economics, politics and religion can all be affected by caste affiliation. Caste is usually inherited, though ancient Hindu texts suggest this was not originally the case. Wealth, power and race can all affect societal rankings as well, and can complicate definitions of caste.
 * Although generally identified with Hinduism, the caste system has also been found among followers of other religions in the Indian subcontinent, including some groups of Muslims and Indian Christians. Caste barriers have broken down to a degree in large cities, though they persist in rural areas of the country, where more than 70% of India's population resides.

Sections of Caste

 * Today, there are five major ‘sections’ within the caste system, with numerous levels within each section. The five sections of caste and representative societal roles are:
 * BRAHMIN: Priests
 * KSHATRIYA: Landowners, warriors and rulers
 * VAISHYA: Merchants and bankers
 * SHUDRA: Agricultural workers and laborers
 * These four are the original castes or 'varnas' described in Hindu texts. Additionally, there was added another section:
 * HARIJAN or PANCHAMA: 'Outside the caste,' previously known as 'untouchables,' they now refer to themselves as DALITS.

Caste in Practice

 * It is sometimes difficult for Western culture to comprehend the pervasive effect of caste on all aspects of life. As a brief introduction to this concept, consider the following paragraphs as quoted from "Indian Child" http://www.indianchild.com/caste_system_in_india.htm, a parenting website for Indian parents:


 * "Generally, the acceptance of water and ordinary foods cooked in water from members of lower-ranking castes incurs the greatest pollution. In North India, such foods are known as kaccha khana'', as contrasted with fine foods cooked in butter or oils, which are known as pakka khana . Fine foods can be accepted from members of a few castes slightly lower than one's own. Local hierarchies differ on the specific details of these rules.
 * Completely raw foods, such as uncooked grains, fresh unpeeled bananas, mangoes, and uncooked vegetables can be accepted by anyone from anyone else, regardless of relative status. Toasted or parched foods, such as roasted peanuts, can also be accepted from anyone without ritual or social repercussions. (Thus, a Brahman may accept gifts of grain from lower-caste patrons for eventual preparation by members of his own caste, or he may purchase and consume roasted peanuts or tangerines from street vendors of unknown caste without worry.)
 * Water served from an earthen pot may be accepted only from the hands of someone of higher or equal caste ranking, but water served from a brass pot may be accepted even from someone slightly lower on the caste scale. Exceptions to this rule are members of the Waterbearer (Bhoi, in Hindi) caste, who are employed to carry water from wells to the homes of the prosperous and from whose hands members of all castes may drink water without becoming polluted, even though Waterbearers are not ranked high on the caste scale.''


 * Caste today, particularly in urban areas, does not always designate a specific occupation. Educated workers in the same workplace may be of different castes. It is the caste designation that may determine social interaction such as a visit to another's home or the sharing of a meal.
 * Conversely, there are strong efforts being made to bring Dalits into all aspects of Indian society, including politics. Here is one story that tells of a woman whose father is a Dalit making her way (not without controversy) in Indian politics : http://www.indiatogether.org/2009/may/soc-mayawati.htm.
 * Though caste discrimination is prohibited in the Indian Constitution, social, political and behavioral practices continue.

=Origins of Caste=
 * Even though caste in India has been in existence for hundreds and possibly thousands of years, the origins of caste are disputed by historians and scholars.

Ancient Origins

 * Here is a brief description of the ancient origin from "Indian Caste System, Ancient Indian Caste System:" "According to the Rig Veda, sacred texts that date back to oral traditions of more than 3,000 years ago, progenitors of the four ranked varna groups sprang from various parts of the body of the primordial man, which Brahma created from clay. Each group had a function in sustaining the life of society--the social body. Brahmans, or priests, were created from the mouth. They were to provide for the intellectual and spiritual needs of the community. Kshatriyas, warriors and rulers, were derived from the arms. Their role was to rule and to protect others. Vaishyas--landowners and merchants--sprang from the thighs, and were entrusted with the care of commerce and agriculture. Shudras--artisans and servants--came from the feet. Their task was to perform all manual labor.
 * Later conceptualized was a fifth category, "Untouchables," relegated to carrying out menial and polluting work related to bodily decay and dirt. Since 1935 "Untouchables" have been known as Scheduled Castes, referring to their listing on government rosters, or schedules. They are also often called by Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi's term Harijans, or "Children of God." Although the term Untouchable appears in literature produced by these low-ranking castes, since the 1990s many politically conscious members of these groups prefer to refer to themselves as Dalit, a Hindi word meaning oppressed or downtrodden. According to the 1991 census, there were 138 million Scheduled Caste members in India, approximately 16 percent of the total population."

British Influence on the Modern Concept of Caste

 * When the British government began its formal administration of India in the 19th century, they were anxious to apply modern techniques of societal governance which included a census. Because the British believed that the population of many Indian cities was greater than it actually was, they felt compelled to establish a statistical method for managing the country. Believing the Hindu caste system was a class system similar to their own, a decision was made to incorporate caste into the census data. Prior to this time, caste did not consist of the rigid occupational and social levels that the British assumed were part of its make-up. Once the British began to create such a system, however, the effect was that caste soon followed the British model of (mis)understanding.
 * According to Kevin Hobson, "...quite simply, the British belief [was] that caste was the key to understanding the people of India. Caste was seen as the essence of Indian society, the system through which it was possible to classify all of the various groups of indigenous people according to their ability, as reflected by caste, to be of service to the British. Caste was seen as an indicator of occupation, social standing, and intellectual ability. It was, therefore necessary to include it in the census if the census was to serve the purpose of giving the government the information it needed in order to make optimum use of the people under its administration. Moreover, it becomes obvious that British conceptions of racial purity were interwoven with these judgements (sic) of people based on caste..."

=North India= http://www.surfindia.com/travel/gifs/north-india-map.gif
 * Photo courtesy of http://www.surfindia.com

Rural North India

 * In rural areas such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, the caste system is--to this day--still quite prevalent in politics and through other social activity between the high class citizens (Jat) or the lower class populus (Scheduled Caste, otherwise known as SC) . The Jat caste of the area are generally rich farmers who maintain close social contact with the [already corrupt] police officials and politicians in India. The Scheduled Castes are recognized as “menial, unskilled, or semi-skilled wage labour[ers]” (Jeffrey 222), similar to untouchables. It is believed that one Jat, in societal standing in influence, is equal to ten Scheduled Castes.
 * Despite the enactment on Prime Minister Nehru’s part for the panchayat (local government body) in lieu of increasing political participation and representation with the rural populous, the tension between different castes did not and still has not resolved. The main reason why the attitude many Indians have regarding cast has still not disappeared in rural areas such as Uttar Pradesh is because the government struggled to create jobs available in the private sector. Since Jats have deeply embedded their social stature within the political network, they are able to secure jobs within the public division unlike the SCs.

Urban North India

 * In North India, the caste system--while it has dissolved significantly--still serves to define and kindle budding social networks. Instead of a cohesive caste system, there is simply a social class system which has emerged within the urban areas of India. The new and emerging classes provide the so-called social order which was present during the caste system. Thus, while the explicit hierarchy of a caste system (i.e. Brahmins and Untouchables) ceases to exist, the concept of a chaiwala (tea maker) as an individual destined to live in poverty and a businessman to thrive in wealth for the remainder of their lives.
 * However, the apparent and consistent presence of caste is in both marriage--which seems to remain within-caste (otherwise referred to as endogamous)--and political party relations (similar to rural north India). The association of caste standing and political party provides “everyday corruption” in both rural and urban northern India (Jeffrey 21).

8IiXP6KEeBE Above is a video courtesy of FRANCE 24, unveiling the current poverty situation in New Delhi, India's capital. While the video does have plenty of foreign bias, it still reveals the exploitation of the police departments, further conveying the mismatched hierarchy of social classes. =South India=

Rural South India
Agricultural plantations growing a variety of cash crops (rice, sugar cane, wheat, etc) are scattered throughout rural South India. The population inhabiting the region adheres strictly to the caste system, allowing the upper castes to rule over the lower castes like feudal lords over serfs. The upper castes own and operate the plantations while the landless lower castes work the fields. Those with membership to intermediary castes do more skilled labor such as cattle farming. The system reflects many aspects of apartied in South Africa. The separate castes occupy entirely separate sections for reasons like to insure the Dalits(“untouchables” or “the oppressed”) do not contaminate the drinking water of those occupying higher castes. This master-slave relationship has caused a number of brutal caste wars caused by the lower castes staging protests and strikes over the unfair distribution of recourses. In many cases these insurrections are taken care of by death squads sponsored by plantation owners. The police in the area ignore these conflicts, since many serving occupy higher castes. q3LRGMCg0T0 This is a video shot by American missionaries of an interview between women walking back from work at tea plantations and the American camerawomen (her commentary is unnecessary). The video is particularly interesting, because unlike most videos posted online about India, it is very raw footage. You feel like you are on the road talking with these women about cutting tea leaves as well.

Urban South India
Urban South India has more recently adopted an “Anglo-American model” (Reed 249) with its booming call-centers and American industry infestation. The economic elite of Urban South India is not considered to be of “high caste”. Rather, the workers and operators at these call centers are assumed to be on the same medium-class level. The only individuals considered to be of high social stature are the people who run these companies. http://cdn.wn.com/pd/b7/63/30075ba30ed8c7abaa15f3fa1439_grande.jpg Above is an image of the city Mumbai, India, the most populous city in India and the second most populous city in the world.

=Modern Issues With Caste and Class=

Women
Women in India have historically occupied a subordinate role in society, until recently with major movements aiming to reverse the inequalities. The treatment of women varies depending on caste level. Typically women of higher classes are not expected to contribute work for the family, as opposed to in lower class families where the women contribute the majority of work to support the family.

Marriage
According to Dr. BR. Ambedkar, “The real remedy for breaking Caste is inter-marriage. Nothing else will serve as the solvent of Caste.” The practice of cross-caste marriage has become more acceptable in certain regions of India. However, traditional practices are still preferred. The more rural regions of Southern India practice cross-cousin marriage practices.

Historically parents of women in high castes were expected to provide dowries to their future husbands, in order to compensate for the economic burden since women did not work in the fields. In efforts to conform to higher castes, many lower castes have adopted this policy. “The Brahmanical form of marriage with dowry is often considered more prestigious and when castes attempt to upgrade themselves they frequently assume this form of marriage payment.”(Patel, 7)

In 1961 the Indian government prohibited the dowry, many husbands still demand payments for their brides in the form of money, farm animals, furniture, electronics, and other valuable items. In cases that the bride’s family cannot deliver a proper dowry, the husband will retaliate a practice known as dowry abuse. The most severe form of abuse is “bride burning”, when the husband burns their wives in to represent the physical act of demanding their complete dowry. The practice of dowry payments and “bride burning” (otherwise known as "sati") indicates the subjugation of women remains a serious social problem in Indian society.

MuNXTPGUcxY&feature=related Above is a news clip regarding an individual “bride burning” story.

Politics
Many Indian scholars believed the politicization of caste would diminish the distinctions between them, but the opposite has happened. On both state and national levels, caste interests have served to be more divisive than ever. Although many who have been excluded from political positions are getting their voices heard. One of the most inspiring, comes from the most populous state in India with a population size of 190 million, Uttar Pradesh. In 2007 Mayawati Kumari won the Chief minister election for Uttar Pradesh, making her the youngest mimister of the state, the first Dalit woman elected to a Chief minister position, and continues to be single, which is a very unconventional decision in Indian society. Many of her reforms have served to break apart the caste identifications, provide social justice for poor, investigate police corruption, and provide means for unheard voices to gain political power. Her political success has proven inspiration for many of India’s oppressed. http://i.telegraph.co.uk/telegraph/multimedia/archive/01482/mayawati2_1482088c.jpg

The left is a statue of Mayawati Kumari in a statue park of famous Dalits.

Skin

 * Indians--both North and South--endorse, embrace, and desire fair skin. Fair skin, for females, "accentuates marital, caste and class positions" (Philips 253). Skin color, to this day, further disempowers women associated with both marriage and morals. The power and appreciation for fair skin traces back all the way to the Mughal Empire and the British who conquered India; thus, fair skin was and is to this day associated with wealth and competency. Also, Aryans referred to "light", which was affiliated with "knowledge".
 * Of course, beauty is a universal standard associated with women; however, having dark skin implied that one worked tirelessly under the sun to earn money, tied to poverty.

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 * Video courtesy of Youtube user fuffu2009.
 * Today, there are still plenty of products in India that advertise for skin bleaching and whitening. One popular and famously endorsed example include Fair and Lovely cream, depicting dark-skinned women as depressed before using the product, falsifying the idea that their lives would be better if their skin was whiter.

There is an also an article by Madhulika Sikkha of NPR briefly discussing skin color and class in India and with NRIs as well.

=Caste and Class in South Asian Literature=


 * Below are two excerpts from Aravind Adiga's The White Tiger, a book reflecting the life and unexpected success of a man from a lower social class. This book highlights both North India's social and political corruption.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/The_White_Tiger.JPG
 * "...that India is two countries in one: an India of Light and an India of Darkness. The ocean brings light to my country. Every place on the map of India near the ocean is well off. But the river brings darkness to India--the black river." (Adiga 12)
 * “Dim streetlights were glowing down onto the pavement on either side of the traffic; and in that orange-hued half-light, I could see multitudes of small, thin, grimy people squatting, waiting for a bus to take them somewhere, or with nowhere to go and about to unfurl a mattress and sleep right there. These poor bastards had come from the darkness to Delhi to find some light--but they were still in the darkness. Hundreds of them, there seemed to be, on either side of the traffic, and their life was entirely unaffected by the jam. Were they even aware that there was a jam? We were like two separate cities--inside and outside the dark egg.” (Adiga 116).
 * You can listen to an interview with the author about the book and current conditions with class and caste in India right here through NPR. There's an excerpt on the bottom if you're still curious!
 * http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2e/Q_and_A_-_black_swan_edition.jpg
 * Vikas Swarup's Q & A, which is what the film Slumdog Millionaire is based off of, highlights the severity of poverty in the slums of Delhi and how they are taken advantage of by gangsters and businessmen.

Arundhati Roy's The God of Small Things (which I haven't read yet) also illuminates the class structure in India and the controversy of marrying outside of caste.

=Works Cited=
 * Adiga, Aravind. The White Tiger. New York: Free Press, 2008. Print.
 * Gentleman, Amella. "Indian elections: Poor rally round as Mayawati defies prejudice and corruption claims." Guardian 8 May 2009, Print.
 * Hitchcock, Amanda. "Rising Number of Dowry Deaths in India." International Committee of the Fourth International 4 July 2001, Print.
 * Hobson, Kevin. "The Indian Caste System and The British- Ethnographic Mapping and the Construction of the British Census in India." Reprinted at http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/s_es/s_es_hobso_caste_frameset.htm. Accessed 16 Nov 2010.
 * "India Caste system, ancient India Caste System." http://www.indianchild.com/caste_system_india.htm. Accessed 16 Nov 2010.
 * Jeffrey, Craig. "'A Fist is Stronger Than Five Fingers': Caste and  Dominance in Rural North India." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers (2001) 26.2: 217-236. Online.
 * Jeffrey, Craig. "Caste, Class, and Clientelism: A Political Economy of Everyday Corruption in Rural North India." Economic Geography (2002) 78.1: 21-41. Online.
 * Kapadia, Karin. Siva and Her Sisters: Gender, Class, and Caste in Rural South India. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, Inc., 1995. Print.
 * Patel, Rita, “The Practice of Sex Selective Abortion in India: May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons.” Department of Maternal and Child Health, 2006, Print.
 * Mayawati: "A Dalit's Daughter Strides Toward Delhi." http://www.indiatogether.org/2009/may/soc-mayawati.htm. Accessed 18 Nov 2010.
 * Philips, Amali, "Gendering Colour: Identity, Femininity, and Marriage in Kerala." Anthropologica (2004) 46.2: 253-272. Online.
 * Reed, Anya Mukherjee. "Corporate Governance Reforms in India". Journal of Business Ethics. (2002) 37.3: 249-268. Online.
 * "The Caste System in India." http://www.indianchild.com/caste_system_in_india.htm. Accessed 13 Nov 2010.
 * Image in section 3.0
 * surfindia.com/travel/states.html
 * Image in section 4.1
 * washingtonbureau.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/2007/08/22/bom.jpg
 * Image in section 5.4
 * i.telegraph.co.uk/telegraph/multimedia/archive/01482/mayawati2_1482088c.jpg
 * Image in section 6.0
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_White_Tiger.JPG
 * Image 2 in section 6.0
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_%26_A_(novel)