History of Asians in Hawaii

History of Asians in Hawaii
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= Early Hawaii, Pre 1700's =

The earliest form of Hawaiian history is based on legend. Originally, the Hawaiian natives came from Polynesia. Based on the discovery of human bones found in ancient lava and coral beds, scholars believe that the islands were settled around 500 A.D. (13 Castle). At this time the islands were isolated from the rest of the world, resulting in solid national customs and a unique religion. The nobility, priests and sorcerers, and commoners made up three divisions of hierarchy in Hawaiian society. Hawaii used a Tabu system. They prayed to ancient gods and had specific guidelines on ways of life. For example, it was forbidden for women and men eat together. The Hawaiians prayed to four main gods: Kane, the creator of the world; Kanaloa, his brother; Ku, the god known for suffering and sacrifice of humans; and Lono, controller of the rains and other natural phenomenons. Among these four main gods were other deities. The most powerful was Pele, the goddess of fire (16 Castle).

= 18th-19th century =

Captain Cook
Captain Cook arrived on Waimea Bay on January 18th, 1778. He and his crew were the first foreigners to visit the islands of Hawaii. The Hawaiians initially thought Captain Cook was a reincarnation of the god Lono (31 Castle). Cook informally renamed Hawaii as "Sandwich Islands" in honor of his friend the Earl of Sandwich (16 Kuykendall, Day). On February 13th, 1779 Captain Cook was killed by natives because of an argument regarding a stolen object. A few years after the arrival of Captain Cook and his crew, outsiders became eager to explore the islands. Russians, English, Spanish, and Americans were involved with the fur trade in China. These ships used the "Sandwich Islands" as a rest and trade point (30 Kuykendall, Day).

Kamehameha the Great
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This is an image of King Kamehameha. (Kingdom Hawaii)

In November 1736, Kamehameha I was born. He was the first to unite the country under one kingdom. By 1795, all of the Hawaiian Islands with the exception of Kauai were united. Kamehameha split the land by giving each chief a piece of land that was to be divided among the territory in which each chief governed (36 Castle). The discovery of sandalwood caused Kamehameha to turn the islands economy from agricultural to industrial based. Internally, the new kingdom began to stabilize. King Kamehameha then reached out to foreigners. In the early 1800's, Russians traded extensively with Hawaii. They set up forts on different islands because of their continuous presence ( 38 Castle). King Kamehameha died on May 8th 1819. His death eventually led to the fall of the ancient Tabu system.

Kamehameha II
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Image of King Kamehameha II (Hawaii live)

LihoLiho took the name of Kamehameha II only to be king for 5 short years (1819-1824). To ensure the strength of the throne Liholiho’s father assigned queen Kaahumanu to be co-ruler (40 Kuykendall, Day). In 1811 the trade of sandalwood became active for foreigners; however, in 1830 the trade collapsed due to reckless deforestation (43 Kuykendall, Day). The Tabu system, interchangeably used with “Kapu”, was abolished. On March 30, 1820 the king commanded a great feast for women and men to eat together, breaking one of the most trivial but practiced laws of the Tabu system. From this point on the belief in gods and other rules were broken (41 Kuykendall, Day).

Kamehameha III
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Image of King Kamehameha III (hawaii)

King Kamehameha III had the longest reign in Hawaiian history, from 1825-1854. Before the collapse of Sandalwood trade in 1830, the Americans ran the majority of its business. Hawaii encountered their first national debt because of the money due to American citizens from the whaling industry. Captain Thomas Catesby Jones of the Peacock helped establish the first written tax law of Hawaii. This took place on December 27th 1826 (51 Kuykendall, Day). Every man had to deliver half a picul (unit of weight) of sandalwood or pay four Spanish dollars, every woman had to weave a mat or pay one Spanish dollar. Debts were not paid off until 1843 (51 Kuykendall, Day). On October 8th, 1840 the first constitution was established. Hawaii became a legislative and judiciary government with limited use of a monarchy. Commoners could own their own land and the freedom of religion was a rite.

Kamehameha IV
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Image of Kamehameha IV (Hawaiian kingdom)

On January 1855, Alexander Lihliho took the name Kamehameha IV succeeding his uncle Kamehameha III. In 1850 a “new era” had already began with the permitted importation of indentured labor into Hawaii. During 1852-1853, 300 Chinese from the Fukien province were brought over to work on the plantations of in the households of wealthy plantation owners (66 Tabrah). This was the start of a significant population change in Hawaii. In 1855 a large immigration of Chinese workers came to Hawaii as the sugarcane industry took off. At first immigrants were celebrated, balls, picnics and other social gatherings were thrown by the King to welcome in the new comers. As immigrants began to populate Hawaii the celebrations ended. New comers were referred to as “coolies” signifying they were starting their lives at the bottom of the economic and social scale (69 Tabrah). The language of “Pidgin” was developed as European and Asian immigrants increased. The coolies were not allowed to speak to each other unless it was in Hawaiian. Pidgin was formed as a mixture between Hawaiian, Portuguese, and Cantonese. Kamehameha IV dies in 1863.

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This is a video of Pidgin being used in modern times. The language that was developed has been embedded into Hawaiian culture.

Kamehameha V
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Image of Kamehameha V, the last line of his reign. (Hawaii for Visitors)

Kamehameha IV older brother Lot became the new Kamehameha in 1863. The main flow of immigration to Hawaii wouldn’t start for another 20 years. The immigrants who already occupied the island were predominantly Chinese. They affected the diet of Hawaiians by making rice the number two crop. During the reign of Kamehameha V he started a "new era" of economic enhancement. Tourism at the expense of the government took off in 1854 (75). On December 11th, 1872, Kamehameha V died without any heirs.

The Republic of Hawaii
On January 17th, 1893 a government that had general legislative authority. The royal government of Hawaii had submitted their powers to the United States government. A representative of the "provisional government" (50 Castle) went to the United States to ask for a treaty of annexation. On July 3rd 1894, the Republic of Hawaii was established. Sanford B. Dole became the first president of HawaiiThe Japanese immigrants caused complications within Hawaii. The only way Hawaii could cope with these issues was to be annexed by the United States (Castle 51). It is unclear whether or not the annexation of Hawaii would have happened as quickly if it did due to the Spanish American war, however, the annexation was put to congress on July 7th 1898. =. On August 12th 1898, Hawaii was no longer an independent nation but a territory of the United States (52 Castle).

= Early 1900- 1950 =

Overview of Labor (1900-1950)
During the period 1850s-1950s, labor supply was a constant concern for employers due to Hawaii's rapid development of Hawaiian industries. The sugar industry was the center of center of concern because mid-19th century Native Hawaiians and migrants were actively being recruited at the same time as immigrants from China, Portugal, Japan, and the Philippines. Essentially, during this particular time period all immigrants (native or foreign) were forced to work on the same plantation fields; therefore, inter-racism took place (Jung 378).

In terms of the population of labor workers in Hawaii, from the 1920s- 1950s an overwhelming majority of workers were Filipino, Japanese, and significant less amount of Portuguese workers. Although Portuguese immigrants were the minority in Hawaii (immigrant wise) they attempted to 'whiten Hawaii's labor force. Portuguese workers were paid higher wages and did skilled work, until Chinese workers came along (Jung 379).

Immigration Act of 1924
The Immigration Act of 1924 is also called The Johnson-Reed Act.

"The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia." (Office of Historian)

The Big Five
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This picture illustrates a group of Hawaiian immigrants protesting against the Big Five.

The "Big Five" is a handful of agencies or factors that dominated the sugar industry in Hawaii during the 19th century. In the 19th Century, the Big Five owned and controlled a small number of haole families with important lineages to Christian missionaries (Jung 378).

The Big Five influenced industrial cohesion and formation of the the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association through its concentration of capital, interlocking directories, and intermarriage amongst the missionary families (Jung 378).

During the late 19th century, the Big Five became 'inroads' with the pineapple industry. The pineapple industry became Hawaii's second largest industry in the early 1930s, which the Big Five controlled a majority of (Jung 378).

Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association
The Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA) is a powerful decision- making body in Hawaii. HSPA coordinated the industry's resources and activities (Jung 378). Below is a photo of a family that was involved in the HSPA.

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Chinese Immigrants
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In Hawaii, Chinese Americans were inferior to Japanese Americans. Sugar planters in Hawaii were concerned with the 1898 Chinese Exclusion Act because if anti- Chinese sentiment spread to Hawaii then sugar planters would loose one-third of their labor force. Sugar planters favored Chinese labor workers because unlike Japanese immigrants, the Chinese immigrants did not strike out.

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Japanese (Nisei) Immigrants
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Japanese Americans were the first group of laborers to arrive in Hawaii. Japanese workers were categorized between the Portuguese and the Filipinos. Japanese workers occupied skilled and semiskilled positions at a rate lower than Portuguese.

The Japanese in Hawaii were called nisei. As anti-Japanese sentiment grew in America, this sentiment also grew in Hawaii until the end of World War II (Jung 380). Racially, the Japanese longed to be accepted as Americans and continually reinforced their loyalty in Hawaii claiming they were assimilationist. Like all non- Filipino public, most Japanese too believed that Filipinos should be at the bottom of racial order, especially during the Depression.

Korean Immigrants
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Korean immigration took place from 1900- 1946. The first 102 Koreans arrived at the Honolulu port on January 13, 1903. Statistically, there were 56 men, 21 women, and 25 children that constituted the first wave of Korean immigrants. Over the next 2 years, 7,500 more people arrived in Hawaii. The reason the Koreans emigrated from their homeland was more so an internal struggle than as external struggle. The Sion-Japanese War (1845-1895) caused constant turmoil within the region (Patterson 1-2).

Soon after the Korean emigration to Hawaii the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association were seeking recruitment of Korean workers. Many sugar planters were concerned that annexation of Hawaii by the United States would put their plantation businesses at a disadvantage. If annexation occurred then the sugar plantation owners did not know how they would maintain their long- established policy of racial mixing of the immigrants. Due to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act Hawaii lost one- third of its labor forces in Hawaii. Furthermore, a power struggle also existed between the Hawaii sugar planters and the Japanese laborers. The Japanese laborers constituted two-thirds of the sugar planters labor forces; therefore, they were afraid that it would be nearly impossible to prevent the Japanese from creating a monopoly (Patterson 1-2).

Koreans stood out in Hawaii for a few reasons. One, Korean Americans were far fewer in number immigration size wise. Second, due to their small number Koreans adapted far faster to the Western world in Hawaii than Chinese and Japanese immigrants. Third, many Korean immigrants were Christian. At the time, many immigrants and native people were not Christians. (Patterson 5-6).

Filipino Immigrants
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This video describes the experience of Filipino immigrants in Hawaii.

Unlike the Japanese immigrants, Filipino immigrants were considered the inferior race by haole (Native Hawaiians). In the Philippines, Filipinos were considered 'not of a self- governing' and a 'barbarous race' (Jung 380). In Hawaii, Filipino immigrants were also seen as barbarous.

In 1920, the Japanese and Filipinos waged a long, bitter sugar strike. Although both immigrant groups protested only the Japanese immigrants were blamed for the sugar strike. The haole planters saw the strike as an anti- American movement by the Japanese immigrants. The Filipinos were seen as 'mere cats-paws' to 'the wily Japanese agitators' (Jung 380).

In 1924, Filipino workers initiated another strike it was dismissed as an effort that the Japanese secretly formulated and supported.

In terms of employment, the Filipino workers were classified as the bottom of the racial order. They were the unskilled laborers (in the eyes of employers and other workers). During the Depression, Filipinos were laid off by thousands of sugar and pineapple industries.

Racially, the Filipinos were excluded from the nation with no questions asked. Filipinos were treated like cheap, unworthy, and discarded labor, especially during the Great Depression.

With the onset of the Great Depression, the Filipino workers organized another strike in 1937 on the islands of Maui and Moloka'i. Because the Filipinos in Hawaii were aware that they were discriminated against this was a strictly organization led strike (Jung 381).

Portuguese Immigrants
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This image is a photo of Portuguese immigrants in Hawaii. It is important to note that Portuguese attempted to assert their authority in Hawaii by trying to 'whiten' Hawaii (Jung 380).

Racially, the Portuguese disliked the fact there was a clear distinction between them and the haole. The Portuguese insisted they 'of the Caucasian race, and therefore white (Honolulu Advertiser)

During the Depression, unlike the Filipino workers, the Portuguese workers were newly hired and promoted by the sugar industry. Unlike the pineapple industry, the sugar industry was not severely impacted by the Depression (Jung 379).

Significance of World War II
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Photo displayed the intense hatred towards all Japanese Americans at the time.

The significance of World War II in Hawaii was the growth of US/Hawaiian anti-Japanese sentiment. As mentioned above, in Hawaii, when other immigrant group threw strikes Hawaii sugar planters blamed the Japanese immigrants. Since the Japanese immigrants came to Hawaii there has been much anxiety for fear the the Japanese would take over Hawaiian sugar industries and turn them into Japanese monopolies. All the fear and anxiety build- up played a role in their disapproval of Japanese immigrants at this time(Jung 380).

Pearl Harbor
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The bombing of Pearl Harbor occurred during World War II. Previous to the bombing, Japan declared to the US that they would bomb Pearl Harbor if the US failed to keep the negotiation they had made at the time. On December 7, 1941, Japanese fighter planes attack Pearl Harbor. The immediate response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor is: Germany and Italy (Japan's axis partners) declare war on the US and the US declares war on Germany, Italy, and Japan on December 11, 1941 (Chan).

The attack on Pearl Harbor affected all residents of Hawaii (immigrants/native born). Within Hawaii, a fear grew amongst immigrants and natives against all Japanese people. Everyone was fearful of them and did not trust them (Chan).

Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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This image shows the aftermath of the bombing in Japan.

On August 6, 1945, the US dropped an atomic bomb on the city Hiroshima in Japan. This was the first time atomic bombs were used in warfare. Statistically, 75,000 people died instantly and over 100,000 were injured. Unfortunately, the bombing of Hiroshima did not make the Japanese government stop trying to conquer China (Chan).

On August 10, 1945, the second US atomic bomb was dropped on another Japanese city, Nagasaki. The second bomb caused the Japanese government to surrender (Chan).

Significance of Post- World War II
World War II ended on September 2, 1945. After World War II, Japanese citizens are released from internment camps in America and slowly anti-sentiment dissolves in the US and Hawaii. Japanese immigrants are allowed to enter the US and Hawaii and obtain jobs and potential citizenship again. (Chan)

= Statehood and Beyond =

After decades of tumult and turmoil, and after having weathered devastating losses due to World War II, Hawaii was finally added to the union in 1959, almost two hundred years after the original thirteen colonies gained their independence. However, Hawaii had strained relations with both the continental U.S. and other nations which had, up until recently, supplied the island with cheap manual labor.

To some Hawaiian citizens, especially the haoles, hapa-haoles, and those who had worked so hard to denounce the Japanese during the war, this new status was thrilling, and gave them a new sense of belonging. However, to other Hawaiians-- especially the Kanaka Maoli people, the native Hawaiians-- the troubled times were far from over, and the new perils came in the forms of commercialization, racial stereotyping, and ultimately, loss of identity. (Lewis, 2-3).

Perceptions of Hawaii and the Kanaka Maoli
Despite gaining statehood status, the Kanaka Maoli people were-- and still are-- characterized as an "other" compared to the rest of the United States (excepting, of course, Alaska, the only other non-Continental state). The Kanaka Maoli had already suffered for a number of reasons, "capitalist intrusion, disease, depopulation, and foreign imperialism" (Crabbe, 2) being only a few of them. However, with increased traffic from the mainland U.S. as a result of tourism, the Hawaiians faced new traumas which were much more subtle, but just as devastating.

One of these issues involves the ways in which mainland America (and the world) regarded the Hawaiians as a people. As far back as the earliest part of the twentieth century, Hawaii had been cast as a "wonderland" or "paradise," consisting of palm trees, lush beaches, gentle moonlight, and dazzling sunsets, much like the image below:

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However, such was not the case: Hawaii had been an agricultural area for hundreds of years, not a divine treasure for white acquisition. Sadly, this was the way many mainland Americans treated their newest state. In fact,in order to keep up with the facade, developers came into Hawaii and imported sand to create beaches, filling in already-existing marshland where planters had worked for years with sand grains and crushed coral bits (Lewis, 3). They took these measures to give the mainland American public what they wanted (and expected) to see when they came to Hawaii.

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Besides this scenery a person may have typically attributed to Hawaii, the language and characterization associated with Hawaiian music were also indicative of people's (mis)conceptions of Hawaiian culture. (Lewis, 2). Prominent musical artists in the twentieth century such as Bing Crosby (who recorded the famous tune "White Christmas") only furthered the stereotypical view of the inhabitants of the paradise-island by putting out songs like "Mele Kalikimaka," featured in the clip above.

[Interestingly, this clip is from the film "A Christmas Vacation," which was filmed in 1989. The woman about whom Clark Griswold (Chevy Chase) is fantasizing seems to be of Hawaiian descent, and represents how even in the late 1980s, Hawaii-- and native Hawaiians-- were idolized and exoticized for their beauty and "otherness."]

Ethnic Categorizations in Hawaii
To be clear, however, not everyone in Hawaii fits into this category. Besides the Kanaka Maoli, there are several other large ethnic populations who call Hawaii their home. Among these are the aforementioned haoles, and the children and descendants of earlier generations of hapa-haoles. Additionally, many Hawaiians can trace their lineage back to immigrants (and laborers) who came from Portugal, Japan, China, Korea, India, and the Philippines. This presents Hawaiians with an interesting challenge, as they try to distinguish who can accurately be considered "native Hawaiian." One method that used to be standard in determining one's Hawaiian-ness was the "fifty percent" rule: if a person could trace half of his lineage back to the Kanaka Maoli, then he was considered indigenous (Kiel, 5).

In response to the fifty percent rule, Doug Kiel, a scholar in indigenous studies at University of Wisconsin, Madison, raises the important question concerning the ethnic "mixing" in Hawaii. He asks, "Who is indigenous and who decides?...in the twentieth century and still today, the [Kanaka Maoli] constructed their identities in terms of both culture and nation" (Kiel, 6). Though a great portion of the Kanaka Maoli still use the fifty percent rule (Kiel, 5) to determine their legitimate standing as an indigenous people, it is not a universally dopted method, and so the idea of who fully "counts" as "Hawaiian" is an issue that is still very much present today, as we can see in the documentary embedded below. (It is kind of long, but watch it if you are interested!)

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Hawaii in modern-day media
Although stereotyping of Hawaii and Hawaiians still exists, it is based mostly on mainland U.S.'s ignorance of the complicated racial and ethnic structures that have existed on the island for so long. This is, of course, still damaging to Hawaiians as a whole, and most particularly the Kanaka Maoli. For example, the 1987 film "Dirty Dancing" manages to accomplish just what offends Hawaiians most: it cheapens and exploits one of their most ancient and sacred rituals, the hula. (Skip to 1:17 for what might be considered the most excruciating part of the song, besides the end!)

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However, Hawaii is popping up in the media more often in recent years for positive and influential reasons. For example, Hawaii is where Barack Obama spent some of his younger days, and the celebrated Hawaiian musician Israel Kamakawiwo'ole has brought a new meaning to "crooning" with his mash-up of "Somewhere over the Rainbow" and "What a Wonderful World."

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Here is an illustration of the late gentle giant himself, fondly called "Iz" by his fans.

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Another way Hawaii has been popularized on the mainland (and indeed, throughout the world)is through the now-iconic "surf culture," as depicted in the 2002 Disney movie, "Lilo and Stitch." Although this film came out a mere ten years ago, it is still interesting to note how Hawaii is characterized as a wonderland, albeit in a more "modernized" sense, much as it was throughout the 1920s-1960s.

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What we might ask of this final clip is this: does this new way of stereotyping Hawaii and Hawaiians negatively affect how they view themselves and us as mainlanders? As more generations of Hawaiians-- and most specifically hapa-haoles and Kanaka Maoli-- are born, their identities will surely continue to shift and change in response to this question.

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