Group 4 Final Project

Throughout the course of this Fall (2010), We (Joe Calpin and Elizabeth Angell) have researched the origins of cornbread as well as its place in industrialization and globalism. At the beginning of this project, our understanding of cornbread was heavily skewed due to stereotypes of cornbread consumers in media: films and radio programs, however as we researched further, cornbread became more than just a Southern food. Rather, one can find cornbread in many countries throughout the world with no attachments to one particular identity. We pledge upon our word of honor that this is our own work, and we did not receive any unauthorized help during this project.

=History of Cornbread: From Origins to Industry=

Origins
The origin story of cornbread must begin with Native Americans as they were among the first peoples to make a food based on ground corn. Their history before contact with Western colonists is scare, making the creation of a central narrative about Native food admittedly difficult. However, we are able to know enough to make sense of "cornbread's" place in Native American food. Not all tribes ate cornmeal. Geography heavily determined which tribes were able to cultivate maize and begin eating it. Tribes from the Northeast, Southeast, Southwest and the Great Plains grew maize. The similarities between these regions are that they had fertile soils supporting corn, yet even areas such as the Southwest-- typically a hot, dry climate-- was able to grow corn. The differences between these regions are grounded in cooking tools and techniques. Further differences lie in the symbolic meaning of corn as well as corn's place in a certain group's diet. For instance, some Indian tribes lived in regions that had a wide variety of other grains besides maize, thus lacked a need to have corn as the staff of life. Geography often played a heavy hand in what types of corn grew effectively as well as how the indigenous population grew the corn. In addition, there is some indication that corn/cornmeal was also a bartering item within regions. Some tribes in different areas of the Great Plains could not grow or produce their own cornmeal and traded with other more sedentary tribes. Other areas such as the Southeast also carried internal differences. While coastal Indians were able to grow things such as maize, they lacked the stability of tribes growing the foodstuff in the interior. Large regions of course carry many internal differences, and cornbread's history strongly reinforces that statement as it developed historically. Just as these groups have differences in agriculture, so too do they differ in process and cookware. Because of maize's exterior hull, it must first be processed in order to become edible and more importantly nutritious. Without the aid of processing corn into a meal, the body is unable to receive any nutrition often leading those who sustain themselves on corn to contracting pellagra. In order to make cornmeal, Native Americans would first have to remove the hull of the kernel and then grind it into a powder. There are two methods for removal chemical and mechanical. Central American Indians used the chemical process known as nixtamalization which uses lime or ash wood to weaken the hulls. After the maize has soaked in the solution the hull slides off leaving a white kernel. This process allowed groups to sustain themselves on an abundant resource that alone and without processing, would have left them with major nutritional deficiencies. Many Native American groups used nixtamalization, yet its spread from Central American Indians to the north is uncertain. Although everyone ate products of cornmeal grinding the corn appears to have been a predominately female activity with women passing on this skill from generation to generation Women would grind the hulled kernels using various stones depending on the preference for fine or coarse grain. Having ground the corn, they would use various tools to aid in the baking process. While processing corn carries similarities across multiple groups, different areas used tools and additional ingredients that matched their surroundings. "To make one type of cornbread, the maize was first pounded into meal, then sifted and combined with water to make a dough; bear oil and fresh or dried fruit might be added." This type of cornbread then could be wrapped in leaves or placed underneath ashes on top of leaves. As mentioned, this method represents one type of cornbread. Southwestern Native Americans often made a flat shell-like bread, which the Spanish colonists would term a "tortilla." Corn embodied a strong religious symbol to the Native American people, and while sweeping statements about indigenous religious beliefs over such a large territory, the production of cornbreads by females, the status of corn as a religious symbol and the regional variations point to the future of cornbread like other  foods is tied with identity and central to culture.

Colonial Period
During the colonial period, both the Spanish and the British experienced major shifts in their foodways through contact with the American Indians. Much like the regional differences of the Natives, such as the Southwestern tribes having corn tortillas, the colonists developed their own differences based on location. However, they also brought along their own cultural ideas of how to prepare foods and what items should be accepted into their foodways. Cornbread met European tools and cooking styles. The British colonized large swaths of land on the eastern coast of North America and encountered many of the different varieties of foodways Native Americans had developed. The colonists varied on the level of acceptance for native food often along a regional basis. No matter what region of the colonies one lived in, maize still would form some portion of one's diet. Like the Native Americans where there was maize, inevitably people made some sort of bread. Those in the New England area tended to have a strong desire to preserve the foods of their homeland. . While they accepted cornmeal as an alternative to flour, they frequently mixed cornmeal with flour made from wheat in order to recreate the breads of home. Cornmeal and its products became a means with which colonists could simulate the tastes of home with the products of the rugged frontier. Unlike their Northern counterparts, those from the South often developed a taste for indigenous foodways, a product of their slaves' cooking and relationship with the neighboring tribes. McWilliams representation of colonists decisions to either emulate Old World foods or adapt to their new environment's foodstuff best describes the underlying reasons behind the variations in cornbread. Further, those living in the North, having more ports, frequent contact with the homeland and receiving hard to come by ingredients like sugar, would have greater ability to alter their cornbreads. The Spanish focused mainly in the Southwest having come up from Mexico were already accustomed to adopting native foodways. Since the beginning of their colonizing in the Americas, the Spanish had been sending foods back to Europe as well as other countries, significantly altering their own foodways back at home. Whereas the British significantly altered the recipes and ingredients to cornbread, the Spanish took on other foodways more readily. Spanish colonists carried and spread newly acquired foodways while pushing into new territory of later Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. The Spanish's ability to adapt quickly to new foodways allowed for closer and intimate relations with natives. Unlike the British, they moved through territories for trade rather than to create permanent living spaces. In response to the areas they previously conquered tortillas became a cornerstone of their diet. The tortilla carried over into the Spanish diet as a cheap foodstuff, abundant and relatively easy to make. Furthermore, tortillas transformed Spanish cuisine into an amalgamation of Native American and Spanish foodways.

Early America
When it comes to cornbread, many Americans initially think of the South, or “Mamma’s country cornbread.” But is cornbread really exclusive to South? The truth is that cornbread is found as a common food in all parts of America. For simplicity, we have broken America up into three distinct regions and three sub-regions: North, South- soul food and Cajun, and Southwest- Tex-Mex. The North and South regions are the same regions established during the civil war, and the Southwest refers to all the states between Texas and California.

It is perhaps much more common to associate biscuits to the north rather than cornbread. However, let it be known that cornbread in the north can be distinctive. Northern cornbread dates back to the time of the English colonists. As previously discussed, Englanders viewed corn as an animal’s feed—not for humans. In the new world, however, wheat grain was not as available as Indian corn or maize. Thus, we see bread being made with cornmeal. Today, we can see how Northern cornbread has developed through the years via modern recipes. Cornbread in the North tends to be sweeter and fluffier in comparison to other regions. Often times Northern cornbread recipes contain sugar (or more sugar) and eggs. It is also quite common to see flour mixed with the cornmeal as this may have developed from the earlier ideas of maize not being fit for human consumption. It is rare to see any added ingredients such as peppers, cheese, spices, etc. as might be seen in other regions, and butter is a common topping. Other than just standard cornbread, we have seen English Pone, “Jonne-Cakes” from Rhode Island, and hoecakes throughout time.

Moving to the Southern region, you could say that things get simpler and more complicated at the same time. Although recipes are simpler, names and food identity begin to play a role as we look at the sub-regions of the Southern region—Soul Food and Cajun style. Generally speaking, Southern cornbread is denser and usually lacks sugar. Cornbread is often topped with butter, but jelly is popular as well. Some of the types of cornbread in the South include hoecakes, ashcakes, corn muffins, cornpone, hush puppies and spoon bread. As we move into the sub-regions of the South, we really begin to see how food and identity are linked. “Soul Food” refers to the link to southern food. During and after the civil war, the south became very poor. Interestingly enough, many slaves did not leave their families or plantations. Instead, it was common to see people stick together and eat and cook what they could afford. Because of this situation, certain foods become very personally tied to certain individuals. Collard greens, sweet potato pie, okra, fritters, fried foods, cornbread, etc all fall in this “Soul Food” category. Cajun style food becomes slightly more complicated to classify, but we can begin by clarifying that the Cajun region refers to most parts of Louisiana. In this region, people often have cornbread sides to popular dishes such as gumbo or jambalaya. Although recipes called “Cajun Cornbread” are available, the actual recipe does not differ from recipes in the Southwest region. Backing up and looking at these two sub-regions in a broader sense, it is apparent that while the cornbread itself does not vary, the surrounding dishes vary greatly, thus making the same cornbread personally identifiable to people of different regions.

Finally, let us look at the Southwest. According to Dent in The Feast of Santa Fe, the southwest vision of cornbread is comprised of influences from Native Americans, Spanish, Mexicans and Anglos. Cornbread in this region tends to be spicy, perhaps peppered with jalapeños. We also see the use of “blue” cornmeal, making the cornbread an actual shade of bluish gray. Within the Southwest, there is Tex-Mex. Because of their state’s dynamic history, Texans tend to have a very independent and self-sufficient self-identity, as demonstrated nicely in the state saying, “Don’t mess with Texas.” While the actual food and recipes of jalapeño cornbread remain the same throughout the entire Southwestern region, there are still specific recipes titled “Texas-Style Cornbread.”  It goes to show that the Texans personally identify with cornbread as they are putting “Texas” in the recipes.

Although we see variations in the different regions, it is not uncommon to see the same recipes throughout every region. This commonality in recipes goes to show that cornbread is a universal American food and it would be rare to find an American who has never heard of cornbread. One thing that is common for cornbread in all regions is the use of cast iron pans for baking. Cooking in cast iron has been around for centuries and centuries. Today, a traditional cast iron pan is a round skillet that bakes a pie shaped cornbread. From this round shape, it is common to cut the cornbread into wedges. Today, cast iron pans appear in many shapes such as corn-on-the-cob sticks, little cactus shapes and even fish shaped.

Race and Identity in Early US
Despite being within the same region, those of different ethnic backgrounds had varying experiences with cornbread. The food may have the same ingredients and cooking process, yet the food's history as well as ability to reinforce a cultural identity creates a unique perspective on cornbread. Cornbread for African Americans is a side dish in soul food. Although African American foodways received heavy influence from not only the British but also indigenous populations, the economic differences between slaves and whites in colonial history meant that African Americans relied on cheaper food in order to subsist, in turn lower costs for food. Having previous exposure to foodstuffs such as maize, they readily adapted rice, corn and cooking techniques from their Native neighbors, introducing certain staple crops to plantation owners. Cornbread would be served as a side dish with a variety of foods such as collard greens, chitterlings and other meats. According to McWilliams, "[w]hites may have eaten high on the hog while blacks ate low, but they both ate from the same hog." Items such as cornbread, while still a symbol of lower class, could transcend race. African Americans having no financial mobility were able to eat cornbread and brought the foodstuff into close connection with their own identity. African Americans would sometimes bake the cornbread with a variety of fats in order to make "cracklin" cornbread, which had the fat of certain types of meats mixed into the batter. African Americans while cooking cornbread often lacked the wide range of tools of whites and thus improvised using such devices as the hoe and other more simplistic means to create their breads. Also much like other Southerners, they did not cut nearly as much flour into their batter causing their bread to have a more coarse texture. The differences between Southern cornbread and African American made lie more in meaning and history than within the cornbread itself. Cornbread as a cheap food was able to consolidate the eating practices of the lower class. Regardless of race, if one was poor cornbread could easily nourish the body. While Soul food makes the case for cornbread to empower people through eating history and past grievances, cornbread itself is a symbol of a food staple able to cross racial boundaries as a lower class food. Having far better relations with indigenous populations, the Spanish intermarried and had children who would later find themselves in an identity struggle as they attempted to identify with certain foodways back at a home that they had never seen or with tribes to whom they were only distantly related. While some may conflate the region Southwest with the Mexican cornbreads often, "Mexican cornbread" acted as an identifier for the blended foodways of indigenous and colonizers. Encarnacion confirms the use of cornbread in crafting identify as she writes a recipe for cornbread, not a tortilla flat bread but rather a common risen cornbread seen in other regions of the United States. Victor Valle states that this particular cookbook was meant to reinforce and preserve the identity of her people, writing, "Pinedo's Cocinero is simultaneously a book of recipes and identities. She shows us how her family dined, and how she reimagined her identity during a period of violent upheaval." Recipes from other groups carry the same set of ingredients as well as the same process thus creating a question: whose cornbread was Encarnacion making? While having a cookbook that emphasizes the authenticity of her style, she uses the same sort of key ingredients and offers little changes to "traditional" cornbread. Along with Encarnacion's work on the range of food she labeled as from her own culture, other people were baking cornbreads as a part of traditional foodways. While Encarnacion's level of detail in describing recipes may have been unusual for her time, the types of food being eaten perhaps were not so odd. However, it was Encarnacion who so explicitly attempted to craft Mexican identity through foodways. Her inclusion of cornbread, along with other women noting cornbread as a part of their foodways, denotes cornbread's ability to demarcate identity. Much like African American's and cornbread, in this example it transcends a racial barrier between whites and Mexican Americans. While cornbread can be found in both foodways, it still marked groups in different ways, especially in terms of the language used to communicate what the item is called and how to make it. Cornbread shifting to Mexican foodways despite lacking independent variations demonstrates its ability to move, changing its constituency of consumers as it travels.

Industrial
For decades, cornmeal production has been a factory project. In short, the corn is shelled from the cob, cleaned, and the ground into the fine grains to be used for baking. [Here] is a simple diagram and procedure for cornmeal production. For purposes of example, let us look at three flour companies that began in the 19th century and developed a box mix by the mid 20th century: Chelsea Milling Company, General Mills, and Royal Flour Mill.

In the early 1800s, a family established the Chelsea Milling Company in Chelsea, Michigan. As most milling companies during this century, this company was producing flour as well as cornmeal. Today, the Chelsea Milling Company is still in business, as their famous box mix is Jiffy Corn Muffins. The company first introduced Jiffy to Chelsea in 1930. Since then, Jiffy has become a national brand and perhaps the most popular cornbread mix on the market. Originating in Michigan, it is no wonder of the ingredients in a box of Jiffy corn muffins. The ingredients include flour and lots of sugar, indicative of Northern cornbread. The finished product, if done according to the directions on the box, is a sweet, light and fluffy muffin. Multiple studies have shown that Jiffy mix is usually the cheapest box mix on the shelf. During research, we were curious has to why this is. We found, ironically, that Jiffy does no advertising. The company has managed to create the cheapest, most popular cornbread mix by saving money on advertising. Today, the Chelsea Milling Company produces many other kinds of Jiffy box mixes including muffins, cake and cookie mixes. []

Originally called the Washburn Crosby and Company, Washburn Corsby formed the General Mills Company in 1877 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. At this time, the mill was producing flour, cornmeal and other grains. By 1880, Crosby had named his flour “Gold Medal,” which is one of the most common brands of flour on the shelves of today’s grocery stores. In 1921, General Mills introduced the figure Betty Crocker to the public. However, Betty Crocker’s first box mix did not appear until 1947 in the form of a cake mix. Today, Betty Crocker has many box mixes, including cornbread. The ingredients in Betty Crocker cornbread are similar to that of Jiffy, yet the two do differ. Betty Crocker contains far less sugar than Jiffy, for instance. However, Betty Crocker cornbread still contains flour and eggs, making the finished cornbread light and fluffy. Again, the ingredients are still indicative of the North. Another interesting element included on the Betty Crocker packaging of cornbread mix is a brief list of ideas to “Make It Your Own!” The list includes adding whole corn, cheddar cheese and bacon to the batter. The same as Jiffy, Betty Crocker is a common American household name. []

In 1899, Richard Lindsey, owner of the Royal Flour Mill in Nashville, Tennessee, named his company Martha White after his young daughter. This company was also producing flour, cornmeal and other baking mixes. The company’s first convenience mix Bix Mix came to the market in the early 60s. This mix was for “just add water” biscuits. Today, the company is simply called Martha White, Inc. Being located in Nashville, the company’s biggest advertisement is the Grand Ole Opry. They produce many box mixes including some for cornbread. When looking at the ingredients for regular Martha White cornbread, one would notice the lack of sugar, even more so that Betty Crocker. Thus, it is apparent that Martha White cornbread comes from a more Southern background. []

=Cornbread and Restaurants= Having followed cornbread's history from its origins to industrialism, where are other places consumers can find cornbread (cornmeal) beyond the grocery store shelf? Many different restaurants offer cornbread as a side and one fast food chain offers cornbread in muffin form. These large chain or franchise eating establishments often create a context of the deep South By placing cornbread as a side dish into their menus, or in most cases freely offered and not listed, the restaurants reflect a piece of cornbread's history as well as greater perception of what type of people eat cornbread Cracker Barrel, a large franchise with locations throughout the US representing food of rural America. With country cooking being the main objective for this restaurant, they serve cornbread muffins on the side, at request and not on the menu. . Cracker Barrel places cornbread in the context of country cooking, rustic and Southern. A large number of popular barbecue restaurants offer cornbread as a traditional side such as Famous Dave's. This particular restaurant lays claim to a heritage of southern cooking, "They were the legendary ribs just like the champion pitmasters used to smoke way down in the Deep South." While the image of cornbread as poor man's food feels distant among the plethora of meats and vegetables available, the restaurant serves cornbread as a free item that is left unmentioned on the menu; it is an assumed side dish. Although carrying different regional styles of barbecuing Famous Dave's only offers one generic type of cornbread. Finally, out of the many popular fast food restaurants, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) is one of the few to offer cornbread muffins as a side item. Unsurprisingly the lowly bread is not mentioned on the main menu but located in a FAQ listing vegetarian options found in the restaurant. There are few locations that represent the stereotypical image of the South more intensely than KFC. Hard Times Cafe, on the other hand, places cornbread in its Southwestern context serving it with chili. Despite being Southwestern in nature, the cornbread recipe used creates a plain, dry cornbread. Their cornbread does not specifically meet Southwestern cornbread standards such as having jalapenos or blue corn. Like Famous Dave's, Hard Times Cafe offers cornbread but does not carry the side on its menu, however the restaurant does offer one cornbread based dish.

=Global Cornbread= Cornbread has spread far beyond the purview of the Americas. Having started as a Native American food baked in a variety of ways, colonialism and early international trade carried cornmeal based breads to Europe, Africa and even China. Europe has multiple types of cornmeal dishes such as the Portuguese broa and Italy's polenta. Cornbread has reached South Africa taking on the form of mealie. Finally, wotou a cornbread-like snack is a part of Beijing's foodways having, according to a story, been tasted by the Empress Dowager. Different people within these countries have used cornmeal as a substitute for finer ingredients, thus perpetuating cornbread's status as a food of the lower class. Italy provides an excellent of how cornbread transferred into a new context. The Italians already had a mush made from different grains called polenta. Later, poor Italians ate the cornmeal version as cheap nourishment. However, many Italians began to contract pellagra as a result of not processing the corn properly. Although they took the cheap food source from the Native Americans, it is apparent that they did not learn how to break properly the hulls of the corn for digestion (i.e. nixtamalization). The nutritional problems after cornmeal's introduction were staggering. Cornmeal may have been easy to transfer from continent to continent yet the Native American's process seemed completely lost on Italian consumers. Cornbread's identity abroad is not necessarily American. Its early transfer during the colonial period may have created a weaker connection between American identity and cornbread. Every culture that has taken on cornmeal seems to have made cornbread its own. KFC, a distinct representation of Southern food culture, does not carry cornbread muffins despite the fact that the company carries the majority of its other Southern items. Cornbread has successfully transferred to multiple locations throughout the world but does not necessarily represent a quintessential American food abroad. On the contrary, it appears multiple groups have taken cornbread and made it their own. Despite cornbread lacking an overt American identity, this food managed to have a similar socioeconomic status, a cheap source of nutrition. An article was published concerning a government organization encouraging Japanese consumption of cornmeal. While further articles do not elaborate on the success of that plan, the notion that cornmeal is a cheap commodity providing moderate nutrition has engendered itself into the minds of officials and other nationalities. American cornbread may not be the international rage, but cornmeal's cheap poor food status is certainly persistent.

=Media= (Image of Hopi women grinding corn into meal) http://umwblogs.org/wp-content/uploads/hopi_women_resized.jpg http://www.thepickyapple.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Indian-Corn1.jpg (Packaging for perhaps the most famous cornbread company) http://www.jiffymix.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/sunsetcmc_1103.jpg Another popular contender for cornbread, Betty Crocker produces its own cornbread mix http://media.shopwell.com/kp/1600030220_full.jpg

(We discovered that cornbread comes in all shapes. Below is an example of corn sticks or corn fingers. Using a special mold one can make cornbread look like corn.) http://farm5.static.flickr.com/4145/5158395415_39d479dbb4.jpg

=Brief Reflection= Over the course of the semester, I have gathered a few recipes, both modern and historic. I have had the opportunity to make many of the recipes and still hope to bake more of them. This project has not only been an excellent exercise in performing unusual research but has also provided me with cheap food fit for a college student. During the NPR coverage of the cornbread festival in South Pittsburgh, one man explained that he ate Jiffy cornbread throughout his college career, an early ramen noodle soup. Cornbread still holds its place as a cheap source of food that anyone can easily access. Thank you for reading this wiki, please send all comments to jcalpin@mail.umw.edu. As a final message, take a listen to Dave Matthew's Band, "Cornbread"

=Notes=

=Resources=

Print
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Warman, Arturo. 2003. Corn & Capitalism: How a Botanical Bastard Grew to Global Dominance. UNC Press Books.

Williams, Susan. 2006. Food in the United States, 1820s-1890. Food in American history. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Wuerthner, Terri Pischoff. 2006. In a Cajun Kitchen: Authentic Cajun Recipes and Stories from a Family Farm on the Bayou. Macmillan, August 22.

Online
"JIFFY" Mix. America's Favorite. From Chelsea Milling Company. http://www.jiffymix.com/recipes.php?product=Corn+Muffin+Mix. Martha White® - Martha White®. http://www.marthawhite.com/Recipes/Search.aspx?type=course&mealtype=26&mealtext=Cornbread. History & Heritage. http://www.marthawhite.com/about/history_heritage.aspx. The Food Timeline--history notes: ambrosia to corn bread. http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodfaq.html#cornbread. - You gone eat yo cornbread. May 4. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2J3GxFYFdg&feature=youtube_gdata_player Southern Corn Bread. May 20. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ApuRlkuJyY&feature=youtube_gdata_player. Feel free to also search my diigo and zotero which contain links to multiple internet resources concerning cornbread